Ayaz Rahman is the SAM Chronicler of Bangladesh Media Monitor.

Research Focus: Pakistani Media Framing of Bangladesh’s Possible Participation in the Makkah Joint Defence Agreement
Coverage Period: 25-28 August 2026
Media Analysed: Dawn, The Express Tribune, Pakistan Today
Total Reports: 5

Between 25 and 28 August 2026, three Pakistani media organisations Dawn, The Express Tribune and Pakistan Today published a total of five reports concerning Bangladesh’s possible interest in joining the Makkah Joint Defence Agreement involving Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and Türkiye.

The coverage developed rapidly over a four-day period. The initial reports published on 25 August focused primarily on State Minister for Foreign Affairs Humaiun Kobir’s statement that Bangladesh was interested in joining the pact. The subsequent reports published on 27-28 August shifted toward Foreign Minister Khalilur Rahman’s more qualified formulation that Bangladesh would “positively” consider joining if invited.

This chronological shift is important. The Pakistani media did not portray Bangladesh as having already decided to join the pact. Instead, the coverage captured an evolving diplomatic position

Interest → Positive consideration → Conditional consideration

Across the five reports, the seven-dimensional codebook produced a total score of 56 out of 70, equivalent to 80%, with an average article score of 11.2 out of 14.

The strongest dimensions were:

Lead Framing Index (LFI): 2/2

Evidence Strength Index (ESI): 2/2

Source Transparency Index (STI): 2/2

The comparatively weaker dimensions were:

Source Diversity Index (SDI): 1.6/2

Quote Distribution Balance (QDB): 1.6/2

Emotional Framing Index (EFI): 1/2

Labeling and Descriptor Bias (LDB): 1/2

The overall pattern can therefore be classified as:

Strongly Framed / Evidence Supported Strategic Foreign Policy Coverage

The dominant narrative was strategic diversification rather than explicit geopolitical confrontation. The reports generally presented Bangladesh’s possible participation as an opportunity for wider strategic partnerships and Muslim-world security cooperation, while avoiding an overtly anti-India or anti-Western framing.

The five reports were published by three major Pakistani media organisations over four consecutive days.

Table 1. Report Distribution by Media Organisation

Media Organisation	Number of Reports	Dates of Publication
Dawn	2	25 & 27 August 2026
The Express Tribune	2	25 & 27 August 2026
Pakistan Today	1	28 August 2026
Total	5	25-28 August 2026

The publication of five reports across three Pakistani outlets within only four days indicates a relatively high level of media salience surrounding Bangladesh’s possible participation in the emerging defence framework.

Table 2. Article-Level Sample

No.	Media	Date	Headline / Central Formulation
1	Dawn	25 Aug. 2026	“‘The matter is being viewed positively’: Official says Bangladesh interested in joining Makkah defence pact”
2	The Express Tribune	25 Aug. 2026	“Bangladesh interested in joining Makkah Defence pact: official”
3	Dawn	27 Aug. 2026	“Bangladesh to ‘positively’ consider joining Makkah pact if invited: foreign minister”
4	The Express Tribune	27 Aug. 2026	“Bangladesh to ‘positively’ consider joining Makkah pact if invited: foreign minister”
5	Pakistan Today	28 Aug. 2026	“Bangladesh to ‘positively’ consider joining Makkah pact if invited: foreign minister”

The five reports demonstrate a clear chronological progression from an initial expression of interest toward a more qualified position based on an invitation and assessment of national interests.

The study applies a seven-dimensional codebook designed to assess how the reports construct and present the issue.

Table 3. Seven-Dimensional Codebook

Code	Indicator	Analytical Focus
LFI	Lead Framing Index	How strongly the headline/lead establishes the central narrative
SDI	Source Diversity Index	Diversity of sources, actors and institutions represented
QDB	Quote Distribution Balance	Distribution of quotations among different voices
ESI	Evidence Strength Index	Strength and directness of evidence supporting the central claims
EFI	Emotional Framing Index	Presence of emotional, ideological or identity-based language
LDB	Labeling and Descriptor Bias	Use of loaded, ideological or strategically significant descriptors
STI	Source Transparency Index	Clarity of attribution and identification of sources

Each indicator is scored from 0 to 2, producing a maximum score of 14 per article.

Table 4. Article-Level Codebook Scores

No.	Media	Date	Principal Frame	LFI	SDI	QDB	ESI	EFI	LDB	STI	Total	%
1	Dawn	25 Aug.	Initial interest / Muslim security cooperation	2	1	1	2	1	1	2	10/14	71.43%
2	The Express Tribune	25 Aug.	Strategic partnership diversification	2	1	1	2	1	1	2	10/14	71.43%
3	Dawn	27 Aug.	Positive consideration if invited	2	2	2	2	1	1	2	12/14	85.71%
4	The Express Tribune	27 Aug.	Strategic engagement / collective defence	2	2	2	2	1	1	2	12/14	85.71%
5	Pakistan Today	28 Aug.	Collective defence / strategic expansion	2	2	2	2	1	1	2	12/14	85.71%

 

Aggregate Result

Metric	Result
Maximum possible score	70
Obtained score	56
Average score per article	11.2/14
Overall score	80%

Thus:

56/70 = 80%

The average article score is:

This indicates a consistently strong level of framing and evidence support across the five reports.

11.2/14 = 80%

Ø  LFI- Lead Framing Index

All five reports receive 2/2 on LFI.

The central issue is made explicit in the headlines themselves. The 25 August reports use formulations such as:

“Bangladesh interested in joining…”

while the later reports use:

“Bangladesh to ‘positively’ consider joining…”

The headlines therefore establish Bangladesh’s possible participation in the Makkah Pact as the central news event.

The framing connects Bangladesh’s possible participation to the emergence of a collective-defence arrangement involving Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and Türkiye.

The Express Tribune gives additional strategic context by linking the issue with:

• strategic partnership diversification
• the “Bangladesh First” approach
• Bangladesh-Pakistan relations
• trade
• people-to-people connectivity
• Saudi engagement.

Table 5. LFI Assessment

Measure	Result
Articles assessed	5
Articles scoring 2/2	5
Aggregate score	10/10
Average	2.00/2
Assessment	Strong

Finding: Pakistani media strongly established Bangladesh’s possible participation as an important foreign and security policy development.

Ø  SDI- Source Diversity Index

Source diversity is one of the clearest areas of difference between the early and later reports.

The two 25 August reports score 1/2, primarily because they rely heavily on Humaiun Kobir.

The later reports score 2/2 because they include a broader range of voices and institutional sources.

Table 6. Source Diversity

Coverage Phase	Main Sources	SDI
25 August	Humaiun Kobir and limited additional voices	1/2
27-28 August	Khalilur Rahman, Humaiun Kobir, Shafiqur Rahman, Turkish officials, Pakistani officials, Reuters/international sources	2/2

Sources represented in the later coverage include:

• Khalilur Rahman, Foreign Minister
• Humaiun Kobir, State Minister for Foreign Affairs
• Shafiqur Rahaman, Bangladesh Jamaat-i-Islami Ameer
• Turkish officials
• Pakistani officials
• Reuters
• international reactions.

However, a methodological distinction is important. the presence of multiple sources in an agency-based report does not necessarily mean that the Pakistani publication independently contacted each source.

Therefore

Source diversity in the article ≠ independent source-gathering by the publication.

SDI Result

Measure	Result
Aggregate score	8/10
Average	1.60/2
Assessment	Moderate-Strong

Ø  QDB- Quote Distribution Balance

Quotation balance follows a pattern similar to source diversity.

The 25 August reports are dominated by Humaiun Kobir, resulting in 1/2 scores.

The later reports have a broader quotation structure involving:

• Khalilur Rahman
• Humaiun Kobir
• Shafiqur Rahman
• Turkish officials
• Pakistani officials.

The inclusion of Shafiqur Rahman introduces a political voice outside the government.

However, the overall sample remains dominated by government and political officials, with limited independent academic or defence-expert commentary.

Table 7. Quote Distribution Assessment

Dimension	Finding
Early coverage	Heavy reliance on Humaiun Kobir
Later coverage	More distributed quotations
Opposition/political voice	Present
International voices	Present
Independent experts	Limited/absent
Aggregate QDB	8/10
Average	1.60/2
Assessment	Moderate–Strong

Ø  ESI -Evidence Strength Index

All five reports score 2/2 on ESI.

The central claims are directly attributed to identifiable Bangladeshi officials and supported by contextual information.

Table 8. Core Evidence Repeated Across the Coverage

Factual Element	Present in Coverage
Pact signed on 7 August 2026	✓
Founding members: Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and Türkiye	✓
Agreement signed in Makkah	✓
Collective security and defence cooperation	✓
Bangladesh expressed interest	✓
Bangladesh would consider membership positively if invited	✓
Earlier Pakistan–Saudi strategic agreement	✓
Türkiye’s interest in an inclusive platform	✓
Possible expansion to other countries	✓
International reactions	✓

The main limitation is not factual attribution but the relative absence of independent strategic assessment of what Bangladeshi membership would mean for Bangladesh.

ESI Result

Measure	Result
Aggregate score	10/10
Average	2.00/2
Assessment	Strong

Finding: The reports are strongly supported for their immediate factual claims, although their independent strategic analysis is comparatively limited.

Ø  EFI – Emotional Framing Index

All five reports receive 1/2 on EFI.

The coverage contains emotionally and ideologically significant language, particularly through official quotations.

Examples include descriptions of the pact as:

• “the Muslim world’s self-defence mechanism”
• “the Muslim family”
• “partners in the Muslim world.”

These expressions introduce a clear religious-identity dimension.

However, the Pakistani publications generally avoid sensational or alarmist language.

The emotional framing is therefore better understood as:

Officially transmitted ideological language rather than overt editorialisation by the Pakistani media outlets.

EFI Result

Measure	Result
Aggregate score	5/10
Average	1.00/2
Assessment	Moderate

Ø  LDB- Labeling and Descriptor Bias

All five reports receive 1/2 on LDB.

Table 9. Key Descriptors Identified

Descriptor	Framing Dimension
“Muslim world”	Religious identity
“Muslim family”	Religious solidarity
“Islamic countries”	Religious grouping
“Self-defence mechanism”	Security/defence
“Collective security”	Strategic/security cooperation
“Inclusive platform”	Institutional expansion
“Strategic partnerships”	Foreign-policy diversification
“Bangladesh First”	National-interest framing

Collectively, these descriptors construct a conceptual framework around:

Muslim solidarity + collective security + national interest + strategic diversification

Importantly, the reports do not systematically describe the pact as anti-India, anti-Western or anti-Chinese.

LDB Result

Measure	Result
Aggregate score	5/10
Average	1.00/2
Assessment	Moderate

Ø  STI -Source Transparency Index

All five reports score 2/2 on STI.

The articles clearly identify principal speakers and their institutional positions.

Table 10. Principal Sources Identified

Source	Position
Humaiun Kobir	Bangladesh State Minister for Foreign Affairs
Khalilur Rahman	Bangladesh Foreign Minister
Shafiqur Rahman	Bangladesh Jamaat-E-Islami Ameer
Hakan Fidan	Turkish Foreign Minister
Raza Hayat Harraj	Pakistan’s Defence Production Minister
Anadolu Agency	Identified agency source

The agency sourced reports also make the source chain visible, particularly in Dawn and Pakistan Today.

STI Result

Measure	Result
Aggregate score	10/10
Average	2.00/2
Assessment	Strong

Aggregate Codebook Result

Table 11. Seven-Dimensional Aggregate Score

Indicator	Maximum	Obtained	Average	Assessment
LFI	10	10	2.00	Strong
SDI	10	8	1.60	Moderate–Strong
QDB	10	8	1.60	Moderate–Strong
ESI	10	10	2.00	Strong
EFI	10	5	1.00	Moderate
LDB	10	5	1.00	Moderate
STI	10	10	2.00	Strong
TOTAL	70	56	11.20/14	80%

Overall Classification

Strongly Framed / Evidence-Supported Strategic Foreign-Policy Coverage

 

Dominant Frame Across the Five Reports

The dominant frame can be summarised as:

Bangladesh’s growing interest in the Makkah Defence Pact as part of wider Muslim-world security cooperation and strategic partnership diversification

The reports collectively construct the following narrative sequence:

Table 12. Dominant Narrative Chain

Stage	Narrative
1	Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and Türkiye establish the Makkah Defence Pact
↓
2	Bangladesh expresses interest in joining
↓
3	Bangladesh views participation positively
↓
4	Bangladesh’s foreign-policy leadership emphasises national interests
↓
5	Bangladesh seeks wider strategic partnerships
↓
6	Bangladesh’s possible membership becomes part of the expansion of the Makkah security framework

The dominant narrative contains two interconnected dimensions.

A. Muslim-World Security Frame

The pact is presented as:

• a defence arrangement among Islamic countries;
• a collective-security mechanism;
• part of wider Muslim-world cooperation.

B. Bangladesh Strategic-Interest Frame

Bangladesh’s participation is presented as:

• possible expansion of strategic partnerships;
• a foreign-policy decision based on national interests;
• an element of Bangladesh’s evolving relationship with Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and Türkiye.

One of the most important findings is the chronological evolution of the narrative.

Table 13. Evolution of Bangladesh’s Position in Pakistani Media

Date	Narrative Stage	Core Formulation	Meaning
25 Aug.	Interest	“expressed interest”	Bangladesh is exploring participation
27 Aug.	Conditional positive consideration	“positively consider joining if invited”	No confirmed commitment
28 Aug.	Reinforcement	“positively consider joining if invited”	Conditional position repeated

The progression can therefore be represented as:

Interest → Positive consideration → Conditional consideration

The distinction is analytically important because the Pakistani reports do not present Bangladesh as having already joined or made a final decision.

Although all three publications covered the same diplomatic development, their emphasis differed.

Table 14. Cross-Media Framing Comparison

Media	Main Focus	Supporting Themes	Dominant Tendency
Dawn	Official diplomatic statements	Pact background, parliamentary developments, political reactions	Official statement + diplomatic development
The Express Tribune	Strategic partnership expansion	Bangladesh–Pakistan relations, trade, people-to-people connectivity, Saudi engagement, “Bangladesh First”	Strategic diversification + Pakistan engagement
Pakistan Today	Collective-defence structure	Founding members, pact expansion, Pakistan–Saudi agreement, Bangladesh’s conditional position	Expansion of Makkah collective-defence framework

Dawn

Dawn provides relatively concise coverage.

Its 25 August report focuses primarily on Humaiun Kobir’s statement and basic pact background. Its 27 August report expands the story by incorporating the Foreign Minister’s parliamentary remarks, Shafiqur Rahman’s position and additional context.

Dominant tendency:

Official statement + diplomatic development

The Express Tribune

The Express Tribune gives greater emphasis to strategic-policy interpretation.

Its 25 August report connects the issue with:

strategic partnership expansion

“Bangladesh First”

Bangladesh–Pakistan relations

trade

people-to-people connectivity

Saudi engagement.

Dominant tendency:

Bangladesh’s strategic diversification + Pakistan-related diplomatic engagement

Pakistan Today

Pakistan Today published one report on 28 August, sourced from Anadolu Agency.

Its emphasis is more strongly placed on:

collective-defence structure

founding members

earlier Pakistan-Saudi agreement

possible expansion of the pact

Bangladesh’s conditional willingness to consider joining.

Dominant tendency:

Expansion of the Makkah collective-defence framework

A particularly important methodological finding concerns Anadolu Agency.

The 25 August Dawn and Express Tribune reports are closely similar in their treatment of Humaiun Kobir’s comments.

The later Dawn and Pakistan Today reports are explicitly sourced to Anadolu Agency and contain substantially similar information concerning Khalilur Rahman’s parliamentary statement.

Therefore, the five reports should not be interpreted as five entirely independent journalistic investigations.

Instead, the coverage represents:

Shared agency reporting + publication-specific framing

Table 15. Coverage Volume vs Reporting Independence

Measure	Finding	Interpretation
Total reports	5	High coverage volume
Media organisations	3	Broad cross-media circulation
Independent reporting processes	Fewer than 5	Agency replication present
Anadolu Agency involvement	Significant	Shared information infrastructure
Publication-specific framing	Present	Individual outlets add different emphases

This distinction is crucial:

Five reports demonstrate media salience, but they do not necessarily represent five independent reporting processes.

The results demonstrate that high framing scores do not automatically mean poor journalism or weak evidence.

The aggregate result is:

56/70 = 80%

At the same time:

LFI = 2/2

ESI = 2/2

STI = 2/2

across all five articles.

This means the reports can simultaneously be:

Strongly framed + strongly attributed/evidence-supported

The comparatively weaker dimensions are:

SDI = 1.6/2

QDB = 1.6/2

EFI = 1/2

LDB = 1/2

Therefore, the principal limitations are source concentration and moderate ideological/identity framing, rather than weak factual support.

Another important methodological point is that official quotations should not automatically be interpreted as evidence of editorial bias.

For example, descriptions involving the “Muslim world” originate from political officials. These expressions are relevant to EFI and LDB because they shape the article’s presentation, but they should not automatically be interpreted as the editorial position of Dawn, The Express Tribune or Pakistan Today.

The five reports collectively portray Bangladesh’s possible participation in a generally positive, strategically oriented and non-confrontational manner.

Table 16. Issues Emphasised vs Underdeveloped

Emphasised in Coverage	Underdeveloped / Limited
Bangladesh’s interest	Implications for India
Positive consideration	Bangladesh’s longstanding strategic balancing
National interest	Possible Chinese reaction
Strategic partnerships	Possible US reaction
Muslim-world cooperation	Military obligations
Collective security	Financial/operational costs
Bangladesh–Pakistan relations	Independent defence-expert assessment
Saudi engagement	Detailed strategic risk analysis
Turkish engagement	Long-term geopolitical consequences

The overall orientation is therefore more focused on:

Opportunities and diplomatic implications

than on:

Strategic costs, risks and possible geopolitical consequences

This omission contributes to the strong framing result. The reports establish the political significance and possibility of membership, but they do not extensively interrogate its potential strategic costs.

Table 17. Principal Findings

No.	Finding	Assessment
1	High media salience	Five reports from three Pakistani outlets within four days
2	Consistent positive framing	Bangladesh portrayed as interested or positively disposed
3	Narrative evolution	Interest → positive consideration → conditional consideration
4	Strong evidence	All five reports score 2/2 on ESI
5	Strong source transparency	All five reports score 2/2 on STI
6	Moderate source diversity	Early reports rely heavily on Humaiun Kobir
7	Moderate emotional/descriptor framing	Muslim-world and strategic terminology present
8	Agency dependence	Several reports rely on Anadolu Agency
9	Strategic diversification	Dominant interpretation of Bangladesh’s possible participation
10	Limited independent analysis	Few independent academic/defence voices

These findings indicate that the coverage is strategically framed but not necessarily factually weak.

The analysis of five Pakistani media reports published between 25 and 28 August 2026 demonstrates a clear and relatively consistent narrative surrounding Bangladesh’s possible participation in the Makkah Defence Pact.

The Pakistani media generally presents the development as a significant strategic and diplomatic opportunity, connecting Bangladesh’s possible participation with Muslim-world collective security, strategic partnership diversification and national-interest-based foreign policy.

The strongest feature of the coverage is its evidence and source transparency. All five reports receive full scores on ESI and STI, while their headlines and leads consistently establish the central issue, resulting in full scores on LFI.

The main weaknesses lie elsewhere. The early coverage is relatively dependent on a small number of official sources, while independent academic, defence and strategic voices are limited. The coverage also contains moderate religious and identity-based terminology, particularly around the concept of the Muslim world, although these expressions are generally attributed to political officials rather than presented as overt editorial positions by the publications.

A particularly important finding is the role of Anadolu Agency. The five reports represent substantial media circulation and high issue salience, but they should not be interpreted as five entirely independent journalistic investigations. Shared agency reporting appears to have contributed to the replication of the core narrative.

Most importantly, the Pakistani media does not predominantly frame Bangladesh’s possible participation as a completed geopolitical alignment. Instead, the coverage portrays it as an emerging strategic choice.

The narrative can therefore be summarised as:

Bangladesh’s interest in the Makkah Defence Pact

↓

Positive consideration

↓

Conditional consideration if invited

↓

Assessment according to national interests

↓

Strategic partnership diversification

↓

Possible expansion of Muslim-world collective security

The central analytical conclusion is therefore:

Pakistani media framed Bangladesh’s possible entry into the Makkah Defence Pact as a significant and broadly positive strategic development, characterised primarily by strategic diversification and Muslim-world security cooperation rather than explicit anti-India or anti-Western alignment.

The 80% aggregate score should consequently be interpreted as evidence of a clear and consistently constructed strategic framing, not as a direct measure of journalistic unreliability, propaganda intensity or factual inaccuracy. The coverage is best understood as strongly framed while remaining relatively strong in evidence and source attribution.